Volume 20: Issue 3

Although the use of acetylcysteine by oral or intravenous administration for the treatment of acetaminophen overdose is generally effective and safe,1–3 there are aspects of its administration that may be “gray” and less than optimal for several reasons. The paper by Pauley et al4 in the current issue of The Journal describes an off-label regimen for the intravenous administration of acetylcysteine for treating acetaminophen overdose in pediatric patients. The authors' experience complements those of several other recent reports of alternative intravenous (IV) regimens administered to adult5–7 and pediatric8 patients.

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Kawasaki disease is an autoimmune disease found predominantly in children under the age of 5 years. Its incidence is higher in those who live in Asian countries or are of Asian descent. Kawasaki disease is characterized as an acute inflammation of the vasculature bed affecting mainly the skin, eyes, lymph nodes, and mucosal layers. Although the disease is usually self-limiting, patients may develop cardiac abnormalities that can lead to death. The exact cause of the disease is unknown; however, researchers hypothesize that an infectious agent is responsible for causing Kawasaki disease. Initial treatment options with intravenous immune globulin and aspirin are sufficient to cure most patients who acquire this disease. Unfortunately, in up to one-quarter of patients, the disease will be refractory to initial therapy and will require further management with corticosteroid, immunomodulatory, or cytotoxic agents. The lack of randomized, controlled trials makes treatment of refractory disease difficult to manage. Until larger randomized, controlled trials are published to give more guidance on therapy for this stage of disease, clinicians should use the data available from observational studies and case reports in conjunction with their clinical expertise to make treatment decisions.

OBJECTIVE: Conventionally, intravenous N-acetylcysteine (IV-NAC) administration is a 3-bag regimen administered over the course of 21 hours, which increases the risk of reconstitution and administration errors. To minimize errors, an alternative IV-NAC regimen consists of a loading dose (150 mg/kg) followed by a maintenance infusion (15 mg/kg/hr) until termination criteria are met. The aim was to determine the clinical outcomes of an alternative IV-NAC regimen in pediatric patients.

METHODS: A retrospective review of pharmacy dispensing records and diagnostic codes at a pediatric hospital identified patients who received alternative IV-NAC dosing from March 1, 2008, to September 10, 2012, for acetaminophen overdoses. Exclusion criteria included chronic liver disease, initiation of oral or other IV-NAC regimens, and initiation of standard IV-NAC infusion prior to facility transfer. Clinical and laboratory data were abstracted from the electronic medical record. Descriptive statistics were utilized. Clinical outcomes and adverse drug reaction incidences were compared between the alternative and Food and Drug Administration (FDA)–approved IV-NAC regimens.

RESULTS: Fifty-nine patients (mean age 13.4 ± 4.3 years; range: 2 months-18 years) with acetaminophen overdoses were identified. Upon IV-NAC discontinuation, 45 patients had normal alanine transaminase (ALT) concentrations, while 14 patients' ALT concentrations remained elevated (median 140 units/L) but were trending downward. Two patients (3.4%) developed hepatotoxicity (aspartate transaminase/ALT > 1000 units/L). No patients developed hepatic failure, were listed for a liver transplant, were intubated, underwent hemodialysis, or died. Two patients (3.4%) developed anaphylactoid reactions. No known medication or administration errors occurred. Clinical outcome incidences of the studied endpoints with the alternative IV-NAC regimen are at the lower end of published incidence ranges compared to the FDA IV-NAC regimen for acetaminophen overdoses.

CONCLUSIONS: This alternative IV-NAC regimen appears to be effective and well tolerated among pediatric patients when compared to the FDA-approved regimen. It may also result in fewer reconstitution and administration errors, leading to improved patient safety.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize off-label prescribing among US pediatric intensive care units (PICUs), determine characteristics associated with off-label use, and identify medications in highest need for additional study.

METHODS: Medications prescribed for ≥1% PICU patients (age < 18 years) in 2010 were identified from 39 children's hospitals. Use in a patient younger than the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved age for any indication was considered off-label. Hierarchical multivariable modeling was used to identify characteristics associated with off-label use, accounting for center effects. Highest-impact drugs were defined by: 1) high off-label use (off-label use in at least 5% of the PICU cohort), 2) high risk medication, and 3) high priority status by the FDA or Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act (BPCA).

RESULTS: A total of 66,896 patients received ≥1 medication of interest (n = 162) during their PICU stay. A median of 3 (interquartile range, 2–6) unique drugs per patient were used off-label. Those who received ≥1 drug off-label (85% of the cohort) had longer median PICU (2 days vs 1 day) and hospital (6 days vs 3 days) lengths of stay and higher mortality (3.6% vs 0.7%), p < 0.001. Factors independently associated with off-label drug use included: age 1 to 5 years, chronic conditions, acute organ failures, mechanical ventilation, arterial or venous catheters, dialysis, and blood products. Half of prescribed medications (n = 84) had been used off-label: 26 with significant off-label use, 30 high-risk medications, and 47 with high FDA/BPCA priority. The highest impact medications identified were: dexmedetomidine, dopamine, hydromorphone, ketamine, lorazepam, methadone, milrinone, and oxycodone.

CONCLUSIONS: Most PICU patients are exposed to off-label medication use, with uncertain evidence. Future medication research in this population should focus on medications with high impact potential.

Pediatric Antibiotic Stewardship Programs: The Path Forward

Jennifer E. GirottoPharmD,

Kristen NicholsPharmD,

Sara L. OgrinPharmD,

Sarah ParsonsPharmD, and

William S. WilsonPharmD; on behalf of the Advocacy Committee of the Pediatric Pharmacy Association

Acetylcysteine and Acetaminophen Overdose: The Many Shades of Gray

Overview of Pharmacological Treatment Options for Pediatric Patients with Refractory Kawasaki Disease

Evaluation of an Alternative Intravenous N-Acetylcysteine Regimen in Pediatric Patients

Patterns of Off-Label Prescribing in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit and Prioritizing Future Research

Stability of Hydrocortisone Preservative-Free Oral Solutions

Antibiotics Before Removal of Percutaneously Inserted Central Venous Catheters Reduces Clinical Sepsis in Premature Infants

Comparison of Polyethylene Glycol-Electrolyte Solution vs Polyethylene Glycol-3350 for the Treatment of Fecal Impaction in Pediatric Patients

Fish Oil Lipid Emulsion-Associated Sea-Blue Histiocyte Syndrome in a Pediatric Patient

24th Annual Meeting Abstracts

EVALUATION OF A PHARMACIST ON-CALL PROGRAM IN A GENERAL PEDIATRIC CLINIC

Pediatric Antibiotic Stewardship Programs: The Path Forward

Gluten-Free Options for the Top 100 Pediatric Medications

Risk Management of Valproate and Other Teratogenic Anticonvulsants in the Era of Proliferating Use

A Review of Neonatal Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Withdrawal Syndrome

Comparison of Sequential versus Concurrent Albumin and Furosemide in Pediatric Nephrotic Syndrome Patients: A Blinded Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial